Mashrabaمشربة

الجُمْلَة الاسْمِيَّة وَالفِعْلِيَّةNominal and verbal sentences

al-jumla al-ismiyya wa-l-fiʿliyya

A sentence that begins with a noun is nominal (ismiyya): al-ḥamdu li-llāh. One that begins with a verb is verbal (fiʿliyya): shāʾa l-ḥaqqu. Faṣṣ Ādam opens with a verbal sentence inside a 'when' clause: lammā shāʾa l-ḥaqqu … an yarā.

ʿAbd al-Qāhir al-Jurjānī (d. 471/1078) argued that meaning lives in the construction, the relations grammar makes between words (taʿlīq al-kalim baʿḍihā bi-baʿḍ), and not in single words. He called it naẓm, arrangement.

أن لا نظم في الكلم ولا ترتيب، حتى يعلق بعضها ببعض، ويبني بعضها على بعض، وتجعل هذه بسبب من تلك

There is no arrangement in words, and no order, until some are attached to others, some built on others, and this one made to depend on that. Dalāʾil al-iʿjāz, lines 1193–1195 (§48, p. 55) ↗

Not in the single wordA word is neither fine nor clumsy alone; it is good or bad in its neighbour.

أن الألفاظ لا تتفاضل من حيث هي ألفاظ مجردة، ولا من حيث هي كلم مفردة، وأن الفضيلة وخلاقها، في ملائمة معنى اللفظة لمعنى التي تليها

Words do not excel one another as bare words, nor as single words: excellence and its opposite lie in how well the meaning of a word suits the meaning of the word that follows it. Dalāʾil al-iʿjāz, lines 1066–1068 (§37, p. 46) ↗

The digital text reads وخلاقها for وخلافها; quoted as it stands.

أن المعنى في ضم بعضها إلى بعض، تعليق بعضها ببعض، وجعل بعضها بسبب من بعض، لا أن ينطق بعضها في أثر بعض

What 'joining words to one another' means is attaching some to others and making some depend on others, not uttering one after another. Dalāʾil al-iʿjāz, lines 8147–8149 (§551, p. 466) ↗

The meanings of grammarArrangement is grammar at work: he lists eight ways of saying 'Zayd is going', each a different statement.
  1. زَيْدٌ مُنْطَلِقٌZayd is going: news of a going, told of Zayd.
  2. زَيْدٌ يَنْطَلِقُZayd goes: the verb, a going under way, renewed.
  3. يَنْطَلِقُ زَيْدٌGoes Zayd: a verbal sentence; the event comes first.
  4. مُنْطَلِقٌ زَيْدٌGoing is Zayd: the predicate brought forward.
  5. زَيْدٌ الْمُنْطَلِقُZayd is the one going: the going is known; the news is who.
  6. الْمُنْطَلِقُ زَيْدٌThe one going is Zayd: the same two words, the other way round.
  7. زَيْدٌ هُوَ الْمُنْطَلِقُZayd, he is the one going: and no one else.
  8. زَيْدٌ هُوَ مُنْطَلِقٌZayd, he is going: the pronoun sets Zayd apart as the topic.

ليس النظم إلا أن تضع كلامك الوضع الذي يقتضيه علم النحو، وتعمل على قوانينه وأصوله

Arrangement is nothing but setting your speech in the place the science of grammar requires, and working by its laws and principles. Dalāʾil al-iʿjāz, lines 1588–1590 (§75, p. 81) ↗

فينظر في الخبر إلى الوجوه التي تراها في قولك: زيد منطلق و زيد ينطلق، و ينطلق زيد و منطلق زيد، و زيد المنطلق و المنطلق زيد و زيد هو المنطلق، وزيد هو منطلق

So in the predicate he looks to the ways you see in saying: 'Zayd is going', 'Zayd goes', 'Goes Zayd', 'Going is Zayd', 'Zayd is the one going', 'The one going is Zayd', 'Zayd, he is the one going', and 'Zayd, he is going'. Dalāʾil al-iʿjāz, lines 1591–1594 (§75, p. 81) ↗

Word order (taqdīm)Put the verb first and you ask whether it happened; put the person first and you ask who did it.

هو باب كثير الفوائد، جم المحاسن، واسع التصرف، بعيد الغاية، لا يزال يفتر لك عن بديعة، ويفضي بك إلى لطيفة

It is a chapter of many benefits and abundant beauties, wide in its range and far in its reach; it never stops smiling at you with something new, or leading you to something fine. Dalāʾil al-iʿjāz, lines 1971–1972 (§98, p. 106) ↗

ثم تنظر فتجد سبب أن راقك ولطف عندك، أن قدم فيه شيء، وحول اللفظ عن مكان إلى مكان

Then you look, and find that what pleased you and touched you was that something in it was put forward, a word moved from one place to another. Dalāʾil al-iʿjāz, lines 1973–1974 (§98, p. 106) ↗

إذا قلت: أفعلت؟ فبدأت بالفعل، كان الشك في الفعل نفسه

If you say 'Did you do it?' (a-faʿalta), beginning with the verb, the doubt is about the act itself. Dalāʾil al-iʿjāz, lines 2068–2069 (§104, p. 111) ↗

وإذا قلت: أأنت فعلت؟ فبدأت بالاسم، كان الشك في الفاعل من هو

And if you say 'Was it you who did it?' (a-anta faʿalta), beginning with the noun, the doubt is about the doer: who it is. Dalāʾil al-iʿjāz, line 2071 (§104, p. 111) ↗

What is left unsaid (ḥadhf)Leaving a word out can say more than saying it.

هو باب دقيق المسلك، لطيف المأخذ، عجيب الأمر، شبيه بالسحر، فإنك ترى به ترك الذكر، أفصح من الذكر، والصمت عن الإفادة، أزيد للإفادة، وتجدك أنطق ما تكون إذا لم تنطق، وأتم ما تكون بيانا إذا لم تبن

It is a chapter fine in its paths, subtle in its hold, wondrous, like magic: through it you see that leaving a thing unsaid is more eloquent than saying it, and silence about a point tells more; you find yourself most articulate when you do not speak, and clearest when you do not make plain. Dalāʾil al-iʿjāz, lines 2622–2624 (§142, p. 146) ↗

The same words, scrambledIn his other book he takes the most famous line of Arabic poetry and shuffles its words: the meaning goes with the order.

والألفاظ لا تفيد حتى تؤلف ضربا خاصا من التأليف، ويعمد بها إلى وجه دون وجه من التركيب والترتيب

Words convey nothing until they are composed in a particular kind of composition, and directed to one way rather than another of putting together and ordering. Asrār al-balāgha, lines 65–66 (p. 4) ↗

منزل قفا ذكرى من نبك حبيب، أخرجته من كمال البيان، إلى مجال الهذيان

['Qifā nabki min dhikrā ḥabībin wa-manzili' (Stop, let us weep at the memory of a beloved and a dwelling) turned into] 'dwelling stop memory of weep beloved': you have taken it out of perfect clarity into the field of raving. Asrār al-balāgha, lines 71–72 (p. 5) ↗

English: AI translation The one-line summaries, the vowels and glosses of the eight sentences are ours (AI); the eight sentences themselves are his (§75), unvowelled in the digital text.

ʿAbd al-Qāhir al-Jurjānī (d. 471/1078), Dalāʾil al-iʿjāz, ed. Maḥmūd Muḥammad Shākir, 3rd ed. (Cairo: Maṭbaʿat al-Madanī; Jeddah: Dār al-Madanī, 1413/1992); § = Shākir's paragraph numbers. Digital text: 0471CabdQahirJurjani.DalailIcjaz.Shamela0012055-ara1 (OpenITI RELEASE v2025.1.9). CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 (OpenITI digital text); the classical text is public domain, the modern edition is not.

ʿAbd al-Qāhir al-Jurjānī (d. 471/1078), Asrār al-balāgha, Cairo: Maṭbaʿat al-Madanī; Jeddah: Dār al-Madanī (editor not recorded in OpenITI's metadata). Digital text: 0471CabdQahirJurjani.AsrarBalagha.Shamela0008187-ara1 (OpenITI RELEASE v2025.1.9). CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 (OpenITI digital text); the classical text is public domain, the modern edition is not.

In the classics3 books · disputed · definitions
  • Qaṭr al-nadāIbn HishāmChapter: The subject (mubtadaʾ) and the predicate (khabar) are both nominative (marfūʿ)Chapter: The Agent Is in the Nominative
  • The AlfiyyaIbn MālikSpeech (al-kalām) and What It Is Composed Of (vv. 8–14)The Nominal Sentence: the Mubtadaʾ (Subject) and the Khabar (Predicate) (vv. 113–142)The Agent (al-Fāʿil) (vv. 225–241)with Ibn ʿAqīl's commentary under each verse
  • Sībawayh, al-KitābSībawayhThe predicate and the subject of predication
  • DisputedIbn al-Anbārī, al-Inṣāf
    • In amāmaka Zaydun and fī l-dāri ʿAmrun, what makes the noun nominative?Kufa: the preceding adverb or prepositional phrase · Basra: its being a topic: the sentence is nominal · he sides with Basra

      Question 6: مسألة في رافع الاسم الواقع بعد الظرف والجار والمجرور

      ذهب الكوفيون إلى أن الظرف يرفع الاسم إذا تقدم عليه

      The Kufans held that the adverb makes the noun nominative when it comes before it. al-Inṣāf, line 709 (vol. 1, p. 51) ↗

      وذهب البصريون إلى أن الظرف لا يرفع الاسم إذا تقدم عليه وإنما يرتفع بالابتداء

      The Basrans held that the adverb does not make the noun nominative when it precedes it; it is nominative as a topic. al-Inṣāf, lines 712–713 (vol. 1, p. 51) ↗

      He gives the Basran proofs, then answers the Kufans’ arguments one by one; that is how he sides with Basra:

      وأما الجواب عن كلمات الكوفيين

      As for the answer to the Kufans' arguments… al-Inṣāf, line 763 (vol. 1, p. 54) ↗

      al-Akhfash (in one of his two views) and al-Mubarrad, both Basrans, sided with Kufa.

      English: AI translation The summary lines are ours.

      Ibn al-Anbārī (d. 577/1181), al-Inṣāf fī masāʾil al-khilāf bayna al-naḥwiyyīn al-Baṣriyyīn wa-l-Kūfiyyīn, ed. Muḥammad Muḥyī al-Dīn ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd (Damascus: Dār al-Fikr; year not recorded by OpenITI). Digital text: 0577AbuBarakatAnbari.InsafFiMasail.JK001424-ara1 (OpenITI RELEASE v2025.1.9). CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 (OpenITI digital text); the classical text is public domain, the modern edition is not.

  • al-Jurjānī, al-Taʿrīfāt · 2 definitions
    • الجملة: عبارة عن مركب من كلمتين أسندت إحداهما إلى الأخرى، سواء أفاد؛ كقولك: زيد قائم، أو لم يفد؛ كقولك: إن يكرمني؛ فإنه جملة لا تفيد إلا بعد مجيء جوابه؛ فتكون الجملة أعم من الكلام مطلقا.

      The sentence [al-jumla]: an expression for a compound of two words, one of which is predicated [usnidat] of the other, whether it conveys a complete meaning [afāda], as when you say zaydun qāʾimun 'Zayd is standing', or does not, as when you say in yukrimnī 'if he honours me'; for this is a sentence that conveys a complete meaning only after its apodosis [jawāb] comes. Thus the sentence [al-jumla] is more general than speech [al-kalām] absolutely.

      OpenITI · Taʿrīfāt, line 1591
    • الكلام: ما تضمن كلمتين بالإسناد.

      Speech [al-kalām]: that which comprises two words through predication [isnād].

      OpenITI · Taʿrīfāt, line 3692

Arabic texts from OpenITI (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0); English titles and translations are AI. All the classics →

Further reading1 work