Qaṭr al-nadā

The word (kalima) is a single utterance (qawl mufrad). It is a noun (ism), a verb (fiʿl), or a particle (ḥarf).

The noun (ism) is recognized by three signs. It can take al (the definite article), as in al-rajul 'the man'. It can take nunation (tanwīn), as in rajulun 'a man'. It can be spoken about, like the tāʾ of ḍarabtu 'I struck'.

Nouns are of two kinds:

The declinable (muʿrab) is a noun whose ending changes because of the governing words (ʿawāmil) that act on it. An example is Zayd (Zaydun, Zaydan, Zaydin).

The indeclinable (mabnī) is the opposite: its ending does not change. Examples: - Nouns fixed on kasra (kasr): hāʾulāʾi 'these'; likewise Ḥadhāmi (a woman's name) and amsi 'yesterday' in the dialect of the people of the Hijaz. - Nouns fixed on fatḥa (fatḥ): aḥada ʿashara 'eleven' and its sisters. - Nouns fixed on ḍamma (ḍamm): qablu 'before', baʿdu 'after' and their sisters, when the second term of the construct (al-muḍāf ilayhi) is dropped but its meaning is still intended. - Nouns fixed on sukūn: man 'who' and kam 'how many'. Sukūn is the basic form of indeclinability (binā').

The verb (fiʿl) has three divisions:

The past (māḍin) is recognized by the unvowelled tāʾ of the feminine (tāʾ al-taʾnīth al-sākina), as in ḍarabat 'she struck'. It is built on fatḥa, as in ḍaraba 'he struck', with two exceptions: - With the wāw of the plural (wāw al-jamāʿa) it takes ḍamma, as in ḍarabū 'they struck'. - With a vowelled nominative pronoun (al-ḍamīr al-marfūʿ al-mutaḥarrik) it takes sukūn, as in ḍarabtu 'I struck'. On the sounder view (al-aṣaḥḥ), niʿma 'how good', biʾsa 'how bad', ʿasā 'it may be' and laysa 'is not' belong to this class.

The imperative (amr) is recognized by two things together: it expresses a request (ṭalab), and it can take the yāʾ of the female addressee (yāʾ al-mukhāṭaba). It is built on sukūn, as in iḍrib 'strike!'. The weak verb (muʿtall) is an exception: it is built on the dropping of its last letter, as in ughzu 'raid!', ikhsha 'fear!' and irmi 'throw!'. Forms such as qūmā 'stand (you two)!'

...qūmū 'stand (you, plural)!' and qūmī 'stand (you, feminine)!' are built on the dropping of the nūn. Halumma 'come here!' belongs to this class in the dialect of Tamīm. On the sounder view (al-aṣaḥḥ), hāti 'give!' and taʿāla 'come!' also belong to it.

The present-future verb (muḍāriʿ) is recognized by taking lam 'did not'. It begins with one of the letters of the word naʾaytu 'I went far', as in naqūmu 'we stand', aqūmu 'I stand', yaqūmu 'he stands' and taqūmu 'you stand / she stands'. Its first letter: - takes ḍamma if its past is four-lettered (rubāʿī), as in yudaḥriju 'he rolls' and yukrimu 'he honours'; - takes fatḥa otherwise, as in yaḍribu 'he strikes' and yastakhriju 'he extracts'. Its last letter: - takes sukūn with the nūn of the feminine plural (nūn al-niswa), as in yatarabbaṣna 'they (f.) wait' (Q 2:228) and illā an yaʿfūna 'unless they (f.) forgo' (Q 2:237); - takes fatḥa with the nūn of emphasis (nūn al-tawkīd) when that nūn is directly attached both in pronunciation and in underlying form (lafẓan wa-taqdīran), as in la-yunbadhanna 'he will surely be flung' (Q 104:4). In all other cases it is declinable (muʿrab), as in: - yaqūmu Zaydun 'Zayd stands'; - wa-lā tattabiʿānni 'and do not (you two) follow' (Q 10:89); - la-tublawunna 'you will surely be tried' (Q 3:186); - fa-immā tarayinna 'and if you (f.) see' (Q 19:26); - wa-lā yaṣuddunnaka 'and let them not turn you away' (Q 28:87).

The particle (ḥarf) is recognized by accepting none of the signs of the noun or the verb, as with hal (question particle) and bal 'rather'. Mahmā 'whatever' and idhmā 'whenever' do not belong to this class. On the sounder view (al-aṣaḥḥ), two words do belong to it: the verbal-noun mā (mā al-maṣdariyya) and the linking lammā (lammā al-rābiṭa) 'when'. All particles are indeclinable (mabnī).

Speech (kalām) is an utterance (lafẓ) that conveys a complete meaning (mufīd). At its smallest it is made of either: - two nouns, as in Zaydun qāʾimun 'Zayd is standing'; or - a verb and a noun, as in qāma Zaydun 'Zayd stood'.

Section: The kinds of inflection (iʿrāb) are four.

(1) The nominative (rafʿ) and (2) the accusative (naṣb) occur in both the noun (ism) and the verb (fiʿl), as in zaydun yaqūmu 'Zayd stands' and inna zaydan lan yaqūma 'Zayd will not stand'. (3) The genitive (jarr) occurs in the noun, as in bi-zaydin 'with Zayd'. (4) The jussive (jazm) occurs in the verb, as in lam yaqum 'he did not stand'. The nominative is marked with a ḍamma (ḍamma), the accusative with a fatḥa (fatḥa), the genitive with a kasra (kasra), and the jussive with the dropping of a vowel (ḥadhf ḥaraka). The six nouns (al-asmāʾ al-sitta) are an exception. They are abūhu 'his father', akhūhu 'his brother', ḥamūhā 'her in-law', hanūhu 'his thing', fūhu 'his mouth', and dhū māl 'possessor of wealth'. These take wāw in the nominative, alif in the accusative, and yāʾ in the genitive. The more correct usage (al-afṣaḥ) is to treat han like ghad 'tomorrow', inflecting it with short vowels: hanun, hanan, hanin.

The dual (al-muthannā), such as al-zaydāni 'the two Zayds', takes alif in the nominative. The sound masculine plural (jamʿ al-mudhakkar al-sālim), such as al-zaydūna 'the Zayds', takes wāw in the nominative. Both take yāʾ in the genitive and the accusative. Kilā and kiltā 'both (m./f.)' are treated like the dual when joined to a pronoun (ḍamīr), e.g. kilāhumā 'both of them'. The same applies to ithnāni and ithnatāni 'two (m./f.)' in all cases, even when they are compounded (rukkibā), as in ithnā ʿashara 'twelve'. The following are treated like the plural: ulū 'possessors of', ʿishrūna 'twenty' and its sisters (akhawātuhu, the other tens), ʿālamūna 'worlds', ahlūna 'families', wābilūna 'heavy rains', araḍūna 'lands', sinūna 'years' and other words of its class (bābuhu), banūna 'sons', ʿilliyyūna 'the ʿIlliyyūn', and words like it.

Ulātu 'possessors of (fem.)', words pluralized with an added alif and tāʾ (the sound feminine plural), and anything used as a name (summiya bihi) from either of these take kasra in the accusative. Examples are khalaqa al-samāwāti 'He created the heavens' and iṣṭafā al-banāti 'He chose daughters'. The diptote (mā lā yanṣarif, 'what does not take full declension') takes fatḥa in the genitive, as in bi-afḍala minhu 'with one better than him'. This does not apply when it has al-, as in bi-l-afḍali 'with the better one', or when it is in annexation (iḍāfa), as in bi-afḍalikum 'with the best of you'. The five verb patterns (al-amthila al-khamsa) are tafʿalāni and tafʿalūna, each with either yāʾ or tāʾ (yafʿalāni, tafʿalāni, yafʿalūna, tafʿalūna), and tafʿalīna. They are nominative by keeping the nūn (thubūt al-nūn), and jussive and accusative by dropping it, as in fa-in lam tafʿalū wa-lan tafʿalū 'if you do not do it, and you will not do it' (Q 2:24). The imperfect verb (al-fiʿl al-muḍāriʿ) whose final letter is weak (al-muʿtall al-ākhir) is made jussive by dropping its final letter, as in lam yaghzu 'he did not raid', lam yakhsha 'he did not fear', and lam yarmi 'he did not throw'.

Section: All the case vowels (ḥarakāt) are implied (tuqaddar) in words like ghulāmī 'my boy' and al-fatā 'the young man'. A word of the second kind is called 'shortened' (maqṣūr). The u-vowel (ḍamma) and the i-vowel (kasra) are implied in words like al-qāḍī 'the judge', and such a word is called 'defective' (manqūṣ). The u-vowel and the a-vowel (fatḥa) are implied in verbs like yakhshā 'he fears'. The u-vowel alone is implied in verbs like yadʿū 'he calls' and yaqḍī 'he judges'. The a-vowel appears overtly (taẓhar) in examples like inna l-qāḍiya lan yaqḍiya wa-lan yadʿuwa 'the judge will not judge and will not call'.

Section: The imperfect verb (al-muḍāriʿ) is in the indicative (rafʿ) when it is free of any particle governing the subjunctive (nāṣib) or the jussive (jāzim), as in yaqūmu Zaydun 'Zayd stands'. It is put in the subjunctive (naṣb) by lan, as in lan nabraḥa 'we shall not cease' (Q 20:91). It is also put in the subjunctive by kay when kay is infinitival (maṣdariyya), as in li-kay-lā taʾsaw 'so that you do not grieve' (Q 57:23). Idhan also puts it in the subjunctive under three conditions: idhan stands at the head of its clause (muṣaddara); the verb refers to the future; and the verb is either adjacent to idhan or separated from it only by an oath (qasam). Examples are idhan ukrimaka 'then I will honour you' and idhan – wa-llāhi – narmiyahum bi-ḥarbin 'then – by God – we will assail them with war'.

It is also put in the subjunctive by the infinitival (maṣdariyya) an when an is expressed (ẓāhira), as in an yaghfira lī 'that He will forgive me' (Q 26:82). This holds so long as an is not preceded by a verb of knowledge (ʿilm), as in ʿalima an sa-yakūnu minkum marḍā 'He knows that there will be among you some who are sick' (Q 73:20). If an is preceded by a verb of supposition (ẓann), two treatments are allowed, as in wa-ḥasibū allā takūna fitnatun 'and they supposed there would be no trial' (Q 5:71), which is read with both takūna and takūnu. An may optionally be left implied (muḍmara) after a conjunction (ʿāṭif) that is preceded by a pure noun (ism khāliṣ), as in wa-lubsu ʿabāʾatin wa-taqarra ʿaynī 'and wearing a cloak with my eye content'. It may likewise be implied after the lām, as in li-tubayyina li-n-nāsi 'so that you may make clear to people' (Q 16:44). There are two exceptions. In cases like li-allā yaʿlama 'so that [they] may not know' (Q 57:29) and li-allā yakūna li-n-nāsi 'so that people may not have' (Q 2:150), an must be expressed. In cases like wa-mā kāna llāhu li-yuʿadhdhibahum 'God would not punish them' (Q 8:33), an must be implied. An is implied in the same way after ḥattā when the verb refers to the future, as in ḥattā yarjiʿa ilaynā Mūsā 'until Moses returns to us' (Q 20:91). It is also implied after aw in the sense of 'until' (ilā), as in la-astashilanna ṣ-ṣaʿba aw udrika l-munā 'I will surely count the hard thing easy until I attain my hopes', and after aw in the sense of 'unless' (illā), as in:

wa-kuntu idhā ghamaztu qanāta qawmin / kasartu kuʿūbahā aw tastaqīmā: 'Whenever I pressed the spear-shaft of a people, I would break its joints unless it straightened.' (The word kasartu is split across the two half-lines.)

An is also implied after the fāʾ of causation (fāʾ al-sababiyya) and after the wāw of accompaniment (wāw al-maʿiyya), when either is preceded by a pure negation (nafy maḥḍ) or by a request (ṭalab) expressed with a verb. Examples: lā yuqḍā ʿalayhim fa-yamūtū 'it is not decreed for them that they die' (Q 35:36); wa-yaʿlama ṣ-ṣābirīna 'and [before] He knows the steadfast' (Q 3:142); wa-lā taṭghaw fīhi fa-yaḥilla 'do not transgress in it, lest [My wrath] descend' (Q 20:81); and lā taʾkuli s-samaka wa-tashraba l-ḥalība 'do not eat fish while drinking milk'. If the fāʾ is dropped after a request and a consequence (jazāʾ) is intended, the verb is put in the jussive (jazm), as in the saying of God Most High, qul taʿālaw atlu 'say: come, I will recite' (Q 6:151). After a prohibition (nahy), the jussive is allowed only if in lā 'if not' can properly take the prohibition's place. So lā tadnu mina l-asadi taslam 'do not go near the lion and you will be safe' is correct, but the jussive is not allowed with yaʾkuluka 'it will eat you'. The imperfect is also put in the jussive by lam, as in lam yalid wa-lam yūlad 'He did not beget and was not begotten' (Q 112:3), and by lammā, as in lammā yaqḍi 'he has not yet fulfilled' (Q 80:23). It is likewise put in the jussive by the lām of request and the lā of request (al-ṭalabiyyatān), as in li-yunfiq 'let him spend' (Q 65:7), li-yaqḍi 'let [your Lord] finish' (Q 43:77), lā tushrik 'do not associate' (Q 31:13), and lā tuʾākhidhnā 'do not take us to task' (Q 2:286).

The following put two verbs in the jussive: in, idh, idhmā, ayyun, ayna, annā, ayyāna, matā, mahmā, man, mā and ḥaythumā. Examples: in yashaʾ yudhhibkum 'if He wills, He will remove you' (Q 4:133); man yaʿmal sūʾan yujza bihi 'whoever does evil will be requited for it' (Q 4:123); mā nansakh min āyatin aw

nunsihā naʾti bi-khayrin minhā 'whatever verse We abrogate or cause to be forgotten, We bring one better than it' (Q 2:106).

The first verb is called the condition (sharṭ), and the second is called the answer (jawāb) and the requital (jazāʾ). When the second is unfit to follow the particle (adāt) directly, it is joined to it by the fāʾ, as in in yamsaska bi-khayrin fa-huwa ʿalā kulli shayʾin qadīrun 'if He touches you with good, He has power over all things' (Q 6:17). It may instead be joined by idhā of surprise (idhā al-fujāʾiyya), as in wa-in tuṣibhum sayyiʾatun bi-mā qaddamat aydīhim idhā hum yaqnaṭūna 'and if an evil befalls them for what their hands have sent forth, at once they despair' (Q 30:36).

Section: The noun (ism) is of two kinds.

The first kind is the indefinite noun (nakira). It is a noun that applies to any member of a genus (jins). The genus may actually have many members, as in rajul 'a man', or its multiplicity may only be supposed, as in shams 'a sun'. The second kind is the definite noun (maʿrifa), and it is of six types. The first is the pronoun (ḍamīr). A pronoun denotes a speaker (mutakallim), a person addressed (mukhāṭab), or a person absent (ghāʾib). A pronoun is either concealed (mustatir) or overt (bāriz). It may be concealed necessarily (wujūban), like the pronoun understood in aqūmu 'I stand' and taqūmu 'you stand'. It may be concealed optionally (jawāzan), as in Zaydun yaqūmu 'Zayd stands'. An overt pronoun is either connected (muttaṣil) or separate (munfaṣil). Connected pronouns include the tāʾ of qumtu 'I stood', the kāf of akramaka 'he honoured you', and the hāʾ of ghulāmihi 'his servant'. Separate pronouns include anā 'I', anta 'you', and iyyāya 'me'. The separate form (faṣl) is not used when the connected form (waṣl) is possible, with some exceptions. In cases like the hāʾ of salnīhi 'ask me for it', the separate form is permitted but less preferred (marjūḥiyya). In ẓanantukahu 'I thought you [to be] him' and kuntuhu 'I was him', the separate form is preferred (ruǧḥān).

The second type is the proper name (ʿalam). A proper name is either personal (shakhṣī), like Zayd, or generic (jinsī), like Usāma, a name for the lion as a species. A proper name is also one of three kinds. It may be a given name (ism), as in the examples above. It may be an epithet (laqab), like Zayn al-ʿĀbidīn 'ornament of the worshippers' and Quffa 'basket'. It may be a teknonym (kunya), like Abū ʿAmr 'father of ʿAmr' and Umm Kulthūm 'mother of Kulthūm'. The epithet is placed after the given name. It may always follow the given name as a dependent (tābiʿ) in the same case. When both names are single words (mufrad), the epithet may instead be put in the genitive (makhfūḍ) as the second term of a construct (iḍāfa) with the given name, as in Saʿīdu Kurzin 'Saʿīd Kurz'.

The third type is the demonstrative (ishāra). Dhā is used for the masculine (mudhakkar). Dhī, dhih, tī, tih and tā are used for the feminine (muʾannath). Dhāni and tāni are used for the dual (muthannā). The dual forms take alif in the nominative (rafʿ) and yāʾ in the genitive (jarr) and accusative (naṣb). Ulāʾi is used for the plural of both genders. The distant (baʿīd) is indicated by adding kāf. The kāf may always appear without lām, as in dhāka 'that'. It may also be joined with lām, as in dhālika 'that', with three exceptions. Lām is never used in the dual. Lām is not used in the plural in the dialect of those who lengthen it (ulāʾika). Lām is not used where the particle of attention (hā al-tanbīh) comes first, as in hādhāka.

The fourth type is the relative noun (mawṣūl). The masculine singular is alladhī 'who, which' and the feminine singular is allatī. The duals are alladhāni and allatāni. They take alif in the nominative and yāʾ in the genitive and accusative. The masculine plural is alladhīna, with yāʾ in every case, and also al-ulā. The feminine plural is allāʾī and allātī. Man 'who', mā 'what' and ayy 'whichever' are used for all of these (singular, dual and plural, masculine and feminine). Al is also a relative when it is attached to an explicit adjective (waṣf ṣarīḥ) other than the adjective of preference (tafḍīl). Examples are al-ḍārib 'the one who strikes' and al-maḍrūb 'the one who is struck'. Dhū is a relative in the dialect of Ṭayyiʾ. Dhā is a relative after interrogative (istifhāmī) mā or man. The relative clause (ṣila) of al is the adjective itself. The relative clause of the other relatives is one of three things. The first is a declarative sentence (jumla khabariyya) that contains a pronoun agreeing with the relative. This pronoun is called the resumptive pronoun (ʿāʾid). The resumptive pronoun is sometimes omitted, as in: ayyuhum ashaddu 'whichever of them is most severe' (Q 19:69); wa-mā ʿamilathu aydīhim 'and what their hands made' (Q 36:35, also read without -hu); fa-qḍi mā anta qāḍin 'so decree whatever you would decree' (Q 20:72); wa-yashrabu mimmā tashrabūna 'and he drinks of what you drink' (Q 23:33). The second is an adverb (ẓarf), and the third is a preposition with its object (jārr wa-majrūr). The adverb or prepositional phrase must be complete (tāmm), meaning it yields a full sense. Both are attached (mutaʿallaq) to an omitted verb istaqarra 'is settled'.

The fifth type is the noun with the article (dhū al-adāt). According to al-Khalīl and Sībawayh, the article is al as a whole. Al-Akhfash held that the article is the lām alone, and Ibn Hishām rejects this view. The article may mark prior acquaintance (ʿahd). An example is fī zujājatin al-zujājatu 'in a glass; the glass …' (Q 24:35), where the thing was already mentioned. Another example is jāʾa l-qāḍī 'the judge came', where the thing is already known to the hearer. The article may mark the genus (jins). Examples are ahlaka l-nāsa l-dīnāru wa-l-dirhamu 'the dinar and the dirham have destroyed people' and wa-jaʿalnā mina l-māʾi kulla shayʾin ḥayyin 'and We made from water every living thing' (Q 21:30). The article may mark the inclusion of all (istighrāq) the individuals of the genus, as in wa-khuliqa l-insānu ḍaʿīfan 'and man was created weak' (Q 4:28). It may also mark the inclusion of all the genus's qualities, as in Zaydun al-rajulu 'Zayd is the man', that is, the complete man. Replacing the lām with mīm (am-) is a Ḥimyarite dialect.

The sixth type is a noun placed in construct (muḍāf) with one of the types mentioned above. Its degree of definiteness is that of the noun it is annexed to. The exception is a noun annexed to a pronoun, which has the rank of a proper name (ʿalam).

The subject (mubtadaʾ) and the predicate (khabar) are both nominative (marfūʿ), as in Allāhu rabbunā 'God is our Lord' and Muḥammadun nabiyyunā 'Muḥammad is our prophet'. The subject may be an indefinite noun (nakira) if it is general (ʿamma) or specified (khaṣṣa). Examples are mā rajulun fī d-dār 'there is no man in the house', where the indefinite is general because it follows a negation; {a-ilāhun maʿa llāh} 'Is there a god along with God?', where it is general because it follows a question; {wa-la-ʿabdun muʾminun khayrun min mushrik} 'a believing slave is better than an idolater', where it is specified by an adjective; and khamsu ṣalawātin katabahunna llāh 'five prayers God has prescribed', where it is specified by being the first term of a genitive construction.

The predicate (khabar) may be a sentence (jumla) that contains a link (rābiṭ) back to the subject. The link may be a pronoun, as in zaydun abūhu qāʾim 'Zayd, his father is standing'; a demonstrative, as in {wa-libāsu t-taqwā dhālika khayr} 'and the garment of piety, that is best'; a repetition of the subject, as in {al-ḥāqqatu mā l-ḥāqqa} 'the Inevitable, what is the Inevitable?'; or a general term that includes the subject, as in zaydun niʿma r-rajul 'Zayd, an excellent man is he'. No link is needed in cases like {qul huwa llāhu aḥad} 'Say: it is: God is One', where the predicate sentence is itself the subject in meaning. The predicate may also be an adverb (ẓarf) in the accusative (manṣūb), as in {wa-r-rakbu asfala minkum} 'and the caravan was below you'; or a preposition with its object (jārr wa-majrūr), as in {al-ḥamdu li-llāhi rabbi l-ʿālamīn} 'praise belongs to God, Lord of the worlds'. Both of these are attached (taʿalluq) to an omitted mustaqirr 'settled' or istaqarra 'it is settled'. A noun of time (zamān) is not made the predicate of a concrete entity (dhāt); al-laylata l-hilāl 'tonight is the new moon' is to be interpreted (mutaʾawwal), meaning 'tonight is the rising of the new moon'. The predicate can be dispensed with when there is a noun in the nominative governed by a descriptive word (waṣf) that rests (muʿtamid) on a question (istifhām) or a negation (nafy), as in a-qāṭinun qawmu salmā 'Are Salmā's people staying?' and mā maḍrūbun al-ʿamrān 'The two ʿAmrs are not being beaten'. There may be more than one predicate, as in wa-huwa l-ghafūru l-wadūd 'and He is the Forgiving, the Loving'. The predicate may come first, as in fī d-dāri zayd 'in the house is Zayd' and ayna zayd 'where is Zayd?'. Either the subject or the predicate may be omitted (ḥadhf), as in {salāmun qawmun munkarūn} 'peace; strangers', meaning 'peace be upon you (ʿalaykum); you (antum) are strangers': the predicate is omitted from the first clause and the subject from the second. The predicate must be omitted in four places: before the answer (jawāb) of lawlā 'were it not for'; before the answer of an explicit oath (qasam ṣarīḥ); before a circumstantial expression (ḥāl) that cannot itself serve as the predicate; and after an explicit wāw of accompaniment (al-wāw al-muṣāḥiba). Examples are {lawlā antum la-kunnā muʾminīn} 'were it not for you, we would have been believers'; la-ʿamruka la-afʿalanna 'by your life, I shall surely do it'; ḍarbī zaydan qāʾiman 'my beating Zayd [takes place only when he is] standing'; and kullu rajulin wa-ḍayʿatuhu 'every man [is] together with his trade'.

The first kind: kāna, amsā, aṣbaḥa, aḍḥā, ẓalla, bāta, mā zāla, mā fatiʾa, mā nfakka, mā bariḥa and mā dāma. They put the subject (mubtadaʾ) in the nominative (rafʿ) as their noun (ism), and they put the predicate (khabar) in the accusative (naṣb) as their predicate, e.g. wa-kāna rabbuka qadīran 'and your Lord is ever powerful' (Q 25:54). The predicate may come between the verb and its noun, e.g. fa-laysa sawāʾan ʿālimun wa-jahūlu 'for one who knows and one who is ignorant are not equal'. The predicate may also come before the verb, except the predicate of dāma and of laysa. The first five are distinguished by being able to mean ṣāra 'became' (murādafa). All except laysa, fatiʾa and zāla are distinguished by being able to be complete (tamām), that is, to do without a predicate, e.g.

wa-in kāna dhū ʿusratin fa-naẓiratun ilā maysaratin 'and if there is someone in hardship, then let there be a delay until a time of ease' (Q 2:280); fa-subḥāna llāhi ḥīna tumsūna wa-ḥīna tuṣbiḥūna 'so glory be to God when you enter the evening and when you enter the morning' (Q 30:17); khālidīna fīhā mā dāmati s-samāwātu wa-l-arḍu 'abiding in it as long as the heavens and the earth endure' (Q 11:107). Kāna is further distinguished by three things. First, it may be redundant (ziyāda) when placed in the middle, e.g. mā kāna aḥsana Zaydan 'how good Zayd is!'. Second, the nūn of its jussive (majzūm) imperfect (muḍāriʿ) may be dropped in continuous speech (waṣl), provided the nūn is not followed by a vowelless letter (sākin) or by an attached accusative pronoun (ḍamīr naṣb muttaṣil), as in lam yaku for lam yakun. Third, kāna may be dropped by itself with mā compensating (muʿawwaḍ) for it, as in ammā anta dhā nafarin 'because you were a man with a band of kinsmen', from an kunta; and it may be dropped together with its noun, as in in khayran fa-khayrun 'if [the deed] is good, then [the reward is] good' and iltamis wa-law khātaman min ḥadīdin 'seek, even if it is only a ring of iron'.

Among the people of the Ḥijāz, the negative (nāfiya) mā operates like laysa under the following conditions: the noun comes first; the noun is not preceded by in, nor by a term governed by the predicate (maʿmūl al-khabar), unless that term is an adverbial (ẓarf) or a preposition with its object (jārr wa-majrūr); and the predicate is not joined to illā. An example is mā hādhā basharan 'this is not a human being' (Q 12:31). The negative lā operates in the same way in poetry, on condition that both its governed terms (maʿmūlān) are indefinite (tankīr), e.g.:

taʿazza fa-lā shayʾun ʿalā l-arḍi bāqiyā … wa-lā wazarun bi-mā qaḍā llāhu wāqiyā 'Take comfort, for nothing on the earth is lasting, and no refuge protects against what God has decreed.' [The text reads ʿaḍlā and bātiyā; these are misprints for ʿalā 'on' and bāqiyā 'lasting'. The verse is usually cited with mimmā 'from what' in place of bi-mā.]

Lāta also operates like laysa, but only with the word ḥīn 'time'. Its two parts are never both expressed, and usually the nominative one is dropped, e.g. wa-lāta ḥīna manāṣin 'and it was no time for escape' (Q 38:3).

The second kind: inna and anna, for emphasis (taʾkīd); lākinna, for correcting an expectation (istidrāk); kaʾanna, for likening (tashbīh) or supposition (ẓann); layta, for wishing (tamannī); and laʿalla, for hoping (tarajjī), apprehension (ishfāq) or giving a reason (taʿlīl). They put the subject in the accusative as their noun and the predicate in the nominative as their predicate. This holds unless the particle (ḥarfī) mā is attached to them, e.g. innamā llāhu ilāhun wāḥidun 'God is only one god' (Q 4:171). Layta is the exception: with mā attached, it may either operate or not. The same two options apply to in with kasra when it is lightened (mukhaffafa). Lākin, when lightened, is left inoperative (ihmāl). An, when lightened, operates. Outside poetic necessity (ḍarūra), its noun, the pronoun of the matter (ḍamīr al-shaʾn), must be dropped, and its predicate must be a sentence (jumla)

If that sentence begins with a fully conjugable (mutaṣarrif) verb that is not a prayer (duʿāʾ), it must be separated from an by qad, by a particle of the future (tanfīs, i.e. sa- or sawfa), by a negative (nafy), or by law. Kaʾan, when lightened, operates; its noun is seldom expressed, and a following verb is separated from it by lam or qad. The predicate of these particles comes between the particle and its noun only when it is an adverbial or a prepositional phrase (majrūr), e.g. inna fī dhālika la-ʿibratan 'in that there is surely a lesson' (Q 3:13) and inna ladaynā ankālan 'with Us are fetters' (Q 73:12). Inna is pronounced with kasra in four places. The first is at the start of speech (ibtidāʾ), e.g. innā anzalnāhu fī laylati l-qadri 'We sent it down on the Night of Power' (Q 97:1). The second is after an oath (qasam), e.g. ḥā mīm, wa-l-kitābi l-mubīni, innā anzalnāhu 'Ḥā Mīm. By the clear Book! We sent it down' (Q 44:1–3). The third is after a verb of saying (qawl), e.g. qāla innī ʿabdu llāhi 'he said: I am the servant of God' (Q 19:30). The fourth is before the lām, e.g. wa-llāhu yaʿlamu innaka la-rasūluhu 'and God knows that you are His messenger' (Q 63:1). The lām may be attached to the following, when used with inna that has kasra: the predicate, when it comes after the noun; the noun, when it comes after the predicate; a term governed by the predicate that stands between the noun and the predicate; or the separating pronoun (faṣl). The lām is obligatory with lightened in when in is left inoperative and the meaning would otherwise be unclear.

The lā that negates the whole class (lā al-nāfiya li-l-jins) operates like inna. It governs only indefinites (munakkarāt) that directly follow it, e.g. lā ṣāḥiba ʿilmin mamqūtun 'no man of learning is despised' and lā ʿishrīna dirhaman ʿindī 'I do not have twenty dirhams'. If its noun is neither construct (muḍāf) nor like a construct (shibh al-muḍāf), it is built (bināʾ), that is, it takes a fixed ending instead of an inflected one. It is built on fatḥa in e.g. lā rajula 'no man' and lā rijāla 'no men'. It is built on fatḥa or on kasra in e.g. lā muslimāti / lā muslimāta 'no Muslim women'. It is built on yāʾ in e.g. lā rajulayni 'no two men' and lā muslimīna 'no Muslims'. In a phrase like lā ḥawla wa-lā quwwata 'there is no power and no strength', you may give the first noun fatḥa; the second may then take the built fatḥa (fatḥ), the inflected accusative (naṣb) or the nominative (rafʿ). The adjective (ṣifa) in lā rajula ẓarīfa / ẓarīfan / ẓarīfun 'no witty man' has the same three options. You may instead put the first noun in the nominative; the accusative is then impossible for the second. If lā is not repeated, if the adjective is separated from its noun, or if the adjective is more than a single word (mufrad), the built fatḥa is impossible.

The third kind: ẓanna 'think', raʾā 'hold', ḥasiba 'reckon', darā 'know', khāla 'fancy', zaʿama 'claim', wajada 'find' and ʿalima 'know', in their mental senses, as verbs of the heart (qalbiyyāt). They put both the subject and the predicate in the accusative as two objects (mafʿūlān), e.g.:

raʾaytu llāha akbara kulli shayʾin 'I held God to be the greatest of all things'

They are preferably cancelled (ilghāʾ), that is, left without effect, when they come after the two terms (rujḥān 'preference'),

e.g. al-qawmu fī atharī ẓanantu 'the people are on my track, I thought'. When they come between the two terms, cancelling them and letting them operate are equally good (musāwāt), e.g.

wa-fī l-arājīzi khiltu l-luʾma wa-l-khawarā 'and in rajaz verses, I fancied, lie baseness and weakness'. [The text writes al-khawarā with a final alif, which gives the reading in which the verb operates. The verse is usually cited as al-luʾmu wa-l-khawaru, in the nominative, with the verb cancelled.]

These verbs necessarily lose their effect on the wording (lafẓ) when they are followed by any of the following: the negatives mā, lā or in; the lām of the start (lām al-ibtidāʾ); the lām of the oath (qasam); or an interrogative (istifhām). This is called suspension (taʿlīq), e.g. li-naʿlama ayyu l-ḥizbayni aḥṣā 'so that We might know which of the two parties calculated better' (Q 18:12).

The agent (fāʿil) is in the nominative (marfūʿ), as in qāma Zaydun ('Zayd stood up') and māta ʿAmrun ('ʿAmr died'). The word that governs it, its governor (ʿāmil), does not come after it. No sign of the dual (tathniya) or of the plural (jamʿ) is attached to the verb. One says qāma rajulāni ('two men stood up'), qāma rijālun ('men stood up') and qāma nisāʾun ('women stood up'), just as one says qāma rajulun ('a man stood up'). Irregular (shādhdh) are yataʿāqabūna fīkum malāʾikatun bi-l-layli ('angels take turns among you by night') and a-wa-mukhrijiyya hum? ('Will they really drive me out?'). A sign of the feminine (taʾnīth) is attached to the verb if the agent is feminine, as in qāmat Hindun ('Hind stood up') and ṭalaʿati l-shamsu ('the sun rose'). Both options are allowed in three cases. The first is an overt noun that is feminine only figuratively (majāzī al-taʾnīth), as in {qad jāʾatkum mawʿiẓatun min rabbikum} ('an admonition has come to you from your Lord'). The second is a truly feminine noun (ḥaqīqī) separated (munfaṣil) from the verb, as in ḥaḍarati l-qāḍiya mraʾatun ('a woman appeared before the judge'); a truly feminine noun joined (muttaṣil) to the verb also takes both options in the chapter of niʿma and biʾsa, as in niʿmati l-marʾatu Hindun ('an excellent woman is Hind'). The third is a plural (jamʿ), as in {qālati l-aʿrābu} ('the Bedouin said'). The two sound plurals (jamʿā al-taṣḥīḥ) are an exception: each follows the rule of its singular, as in qāma l-Zaydūna ('the Zayds stood up') and qāmati l-Hindātu ('the Hinds stood up'). In prose, mā qāmat illā Hindun ('none stood up but Hind') is not allowed with the feminine sign because the real agent is an omitted masculine word, 'anyone'. The agent is likewise omitted in {aw iṭʿāmun fī yawmin dhī masghabatin yatīman} ('or feeding, on a day of hunger, an orphan'), in {quḍiya l-amru} ('the matter was decided'), and in {asmiʿ bihim wa-abṣir} ('how well they will hear, and how well they will see!'). In all other cases the two options are not allowed. The basic rule (aṣl) is that the agent comes directly after its governor. It may come later by choice (jawāzan), as in {wa-la-qad jāʾa āla Firʿawna l-nudhuru} ('the warnings came to the people of Pharaoh')

and in the verse ka-mā atā rabbahu Mūsā ʿalā qadari ('as Moses came to his Lord at the appointed time'). The agent must come later (wujūban) in {wa-idhi btalā Ibrāhīma rabbuhu} ('when his Lord tested Abraham'), where the agent contains a pronoun referring to the object, and in ḍarabanī Zaydun ('Zayd struck me'), where the object is an attached pronoun. The object (mafʿūl) must sometimes come after the agent. This happens in ḍarabtu Zaydan ('I struck Zayd'), where the agent is an attached pronoun; in mā aḥsana Zaydan ('how handsome Zayd is!'); and in ḍaraba Mūsā ʿĪsā ('Moses struck Jesus'), where neither word shows its case. It does not happen in arḍaʿati l-ṣughrā l-kubrā ('the younger woman nursed the older one' or the reverse), since the sense makes the roles clear. The object may come before the governor by choice, as in {farīqan hadā} ('a party He guided'), and must come before it in ayyan mā tadʿū ('whichever you call upon'). When the verb is niʿma ('how excellent') or biʾsa ('how bad'), the agent takes one of three forms. It may be made definite by the article of the genus (al al-jinsiyya), as in niʿma l-ʿabdu ('an excellent servant'). It may be annexed (muḍāf) to a noun that carries that article, as in {wa-la-niʿma dāru l-muttaqīna} ('excellent indeed is the abode of the God-fearing'). It may be a concealed pronoun (ḍamīr mustatir) explained by a specifying accusative (tamyīz) that agrees with the noun singled out for praise or blame (al-makhṣūṣ), as in {biʾsa li-l-ẓālimīna badalan} ('evil for the wrongdoers is the exchange').

The agent (fāʿil) may be omitted. A direct object (mafʿūl bih) then takes its place in all of its rules. If there is no direct object, its place is taken by whatever is specified (mukhtaṣṣ) and freely inflected (mutaṣarrif) among adverbs of time and place (ẓarf), prepositional complements (majrūr) and verbal nouns (maṣdar). The first letter of the verb takes u (ḍamm) in every case (muṭlaqan). The second letter shares this u in a verb such as tuʿullima ('it was learned'), and the third letter shares it in a verb such as unṭuliqa ('there was a departing'). The letter before the last takes a (fatḥ) in the imperfect (muḍāriʿ) and i (kasr) in the perfect (māḍī). In verbs such as qāla ('he said') and bāʿa ('he sold') you may use three pronunciations: a pure i (kasr mukhlaṣ), as in qīla ('it was said') and bīʿa ('it was sold'); an i tinged with u (ishmām); and a pure u (ḍamm mukhlaṣ), as in qūla and būʿa.

In cases like zaydan ḍarabtuhu ('Zayd, I struck him'), or [zaydan] ḍarabtu akhāhu ('Zayd, I struck his brother'), or [zaydan] marartu bihi ('Zayd, I passed by him'), two things are permitted. The first is to put Zayd in the nominative (rafʿ) as the subject of a nominal sentence (ibtidāʾ), in which case the sentence after it is its predicate (khabar). The second is to put it in the accusative (naṣb) by an implied (iḍmār) verb: ḍarabtu ('I struck'), ahantu ('I humiliated') and jāwaztu ('I passed') respectively, which must be

…omitted (ḥadhf). In that case the sentence after it has no grammatical position (mawḍiʿ). The accusative is preferred (tarajjuḥ) in the following cases: • In cases like zaydan iḍribhu ('Zayd, strike him!'), because the verb is a request (ṭalab). A case like {wa-l-sāriqu wa-l-sāriqatu fa-qṭaʿū aydiyahumā} ('As for the male thief and the female thief, cut off their hands', Q 5:38), which has the nominative, is explained by reinterpretation (taʾwīl). • In cases like {wa-l-anʿāma khalaqahā lakum} ('And the cattle, He created them for you', Q 16:5), for correspondence (tanāsub) with the preceding verbal sentence. • In cases like {a-basharan minnā wāḥidan nattabiʿuhu} ('Is it a single human being from among us that we should follow?', Q 54:24) and mā zaydan raʾaytuhu ('Zayd, I did not see him'), because a verb predominantly follows these particles (ghalabat al-fiʿl). The accusative is obligatory in cases like in zaydan laqītahu fa-akrimhu ('If you meet Zayd, honour him') and hallā zaydan akramtahu ('Why did you not honour Zayd?'), because a verb is obligatory after these particles. The nominative is obligatory in cases like kharajtu fa-idhā zaydun yaḍribuhu ʿamrun ('I went out, and there was Zayd, with ʿAmr striking him'), because a verb cannot follow this idhā. The two are equally valid in cases like zaydun qāma abūhu wa-ʿamrun akramtuhu ('Zayd, his father stood up, and ʿAmr, I honoured him'), because of balance (takāfuʾ) between the nominal and the verbal reading. The following do not belong to this chapter: wa-kullu shayʾin faʿalūhu fī l-zubur ('And everything they did is in the Scriptures', Q 54:52), where the verb describes shayʾ and so cannot govern it; and a-zaydun dhuhiba bihi ('Was Zayd taken away?'), where the passive verb already governs the prepositional phrase bihi in place of a subject and so cannot be supplied to govern Zayd in the accusative.

In an example such as ḍarabanī wa-ḍarabtu Zaydan ('he struck me, and I struck Zayd'), where two verbs both seek the one noun, it is permitted to give the government (iʿmāl) to the first verb, which the Kufans preferred. In that case everything the second verb needs is expressed as a pronoun (yuḍmar) in it. It is also permitted to give the government to the second verb, which the Basrans preferred. In that case only the first verb's nominative element, its subject (marfūʿ), is expressed as a pronoun in it. An example is:

jafawnī wa-lam ajfu l-akhillāʾa: 'They treated me harshly, and I did not treat my friends harshly.' Here the second verb ajfu governs al-akhillāʾa as its object, and the first verb carries only its subject pronoun, the plural -ū in jafawnī.

The following is not an instance of it:

kafānī wa-lam aṭlub qalīlun mina l-māli: 'a little wealth would have sufficed me, and I would not have sought [more].'

This is because the meaning would be spoiled. If aṭlub were also directed at qalīlun, the poet would be saying that he does not seek a little wealth. That contradicts his point, which is that a little wealth would have been enough for him if he had striven only for a modest living.

[The first is] the direct object (mafʿūl bihi). It is that on which the action of the agent (fāʿil) falls, as in ḍarabtu zaydan, 'I struck Zayd'. The vocative noun (munādā) belongs to this kind. It is put in the accusative (naṣb) only when it is annexed (muḍāf), as in yā ʿabda llāhi, 'O ʿAbd Allāh'; or when it resembles the annexed noun (shabīh bi-l-muḍāf)

as in yā ḥasanan wajhuhu, 'O you whose face is handsome', yā ṭāliʿan jabalan, 'O you who are climbing a mountain', and yā rafīqan bi-l-ʿibādi, 'O you who are kind to the servants [of God]'; or when it is an indefinite noun (nakira) that does not refer to anyone in particular (ghayr maqṣūda), as in the blind man's words yā rajulan khudh bi-yadī, 'O [some] man, take my hand'. The single (mufrad) definite (maʿrifa) vocative, meaning one that is neither annexed nor like the annexed, is indeclinable (yubnā) on the sign with which it would be put in the nominative (rafʿ), as in yā zaydu, 'O Zayd', yā zaydāni, 'O two Zayds', and yā zaydūna, 'O Zayds'; and yā rajulu, 'O man', when a particular man is meant (li-muʿayyan).

Section: [This section covers a noun in the vocative that is annexed to the first-person pronoun "my."] You say "yā ghulām" ("O my servant") with the three vowels. With kasra it is yā ghulāmi. With fatḥa it is yā ghulāma. With ḍamma it is yā ghulāmu. You may also say it with the yāʾ, either given the vowel a (fatḥ) or left vowelless (iskān): yā ghulāmiya and yā ghulāmī. And you may say it with the alif: yā ghulāmā. You say "yā abati" ("O my father"), "yā ummati" ("O my mother"), "yā bna ummi" ("O son of my mother") and "yā bna ʿammi" ("O son of my paternal uncle") with the vowel a (fatḥ) and the vowel i (kasr): yā abata / yā abati, yā ummata / yā ummati, yā bna umma / yā bna ummi, yā bna ʿamma / yā bna ʿammi. Appending (ilḥāq) the alif or the yāʾ to the first two (abat, ummat) is ugly (qabīḥ), as in yā abatā or yā abatī. Appending it to the last two (ibn umm, ibn ʿamm) is weak (ḍaʿīf), as in yā bna ummā or yā bna ummī.

Section. Some words follow an indeclinable (mabnī) vocative. These are its attribute (naʿt), its emphasis (taʾkīd), its explicative apposition (bayān), and a coordinated noun (nasaq) that carries al. When such a word is single (mufrad), or is annexed (muḍāf) while carrying al, it may follow either the vocative's outward form (lafẓ) or its syntactic position (maḥall). Examples: yā zaydu l-ʿāqilu or yā zaydu l-ʿāqila, 'O Zayd, the intelligent one'; yā zaydu l-ḥasanu l-wajhi or l-ḥasana l-wajhi, 'O Zayd, the fair of face'; yā zaydu wa-l-ḥārithu or wa-l-ḥāritha, 'O Zayd and al-Ḥārith'. When such a word is annexed and free (mujarrad) of al, it follows the vocative's position only, as in yā tamīmu kullahum, 'O Tamīm, all of them'. The attribute of ayy follows its form only, as in yā ayyuhā r-rajulu, 'O man'. The substitute (badal) and a coordinated noun without al are treated in every case like an independent vocative (munādā mustaqill). Examples: yā zaydu bishru, 'O Zayd, Bishr', treated as yā bishru; yā zaydu wa-ʿamru, 'O Zayd and ʿAmr', treated as yā ʿamru. In a case like yā zaydu zayda l-yaʿmalāti, 'O Zayd, Zayd of the hard-working camels', you may either give the fatḥa to both nouns (yā zayda zayda l-yaʿmalāti) or give the ḍamma to the first (yā zaydu zayda l-yaʿmalāti).

Section: It is permitted to curtail (tarkhīm) the definite (maʿrifa) vocative noun (munādā). Curtailment is the deletion (ḥadhf) of its last part for lightness (takhfīf). A noun ending in the feminine tāʾ may be curtailed without any further condition, as in yā Ṭalḥa ('O Ṭalḥa!', from Ṭalḥa) and yā thuba ('O group!', from thuba). Any other noun may be curtailed only on three conditions: it is built on the ḍamma (ḍamm), which excludes the annexed vocative and the vocative that resembles it; it is a proper name (ʿalamiyya); and it exceeds three letters. An example is yā Jaʿfa or yā Jaʿfu ('O Jaʿfar!'). The final consonant may keep its original vowel, the fatḥa (fatḥ), or it may take the ḍamma (ḍamm), with the shortened form treated as a complete name. From nouns like Sulaymān, Manṣūr and Miskīn two letters are deleted, giving yā Sulay, yā Manṣ, yā Misk. From nouns like Maʿdīkarib the second word is deleted, giving yā Maʿdī.

Section: The one calling for help (mustaghīth) says "yā la-llāhi li-l-muslimīn" ('O God, to the Muslims' aid!'), with fatḥa on the lām of the one whose help is sought (mustaghāth bihi). The exception is the lām of a conjoined noun (maʿṭūf) with which yā is repeated [the standard text reads 'is not repeated' (lam yatakarrar): in yā la-Zaydin wa-li-ʿAmrin the second lām takes kasra]. A further exception is a case like "yā Zaydu li-ʿAmrin" ('O Zayd, [help] ʿAmr!') and "yā qawmi li-l-ʿajabi l-ʿajīb" ('O my people, for the astonishing wonder!'), where the lām takes kasra. The one lamenting (nādib) says "wā Zaydā" ('alas, Zayd!'), "wā amīra l-muʾminīnā" ('alas, Commander of the Faithful!'), and "wā raʾsā" ('alas, my head!'). You may attach hāʾ when pausing (waqf), e.g. wā Zaydāh.

The absolute object (al-mafʿūl al-muṭlaq) is the verbal noun (maṣdar) that is a non-core element (faḍla) and is governed by an operator (ʿāmil) from its own wording, as in "ḍarabtu ḍarban" ('I struck a striking'), or from its meaning, as in "qaʿadtu julūsan" ('I sat a sitting'). Sometimes another word stands in for it (yanūbu ʿanhu), as in "ḍarabtuhu sawṭan" ('I struck him a whip-stroke'), {fa-jlidūhum thamānīna jaldatan} ('flog them eighty lashes', Q 24:4), {fa-lā tamīlū kulla l-mayl} ('do not incline with all inclining', Q 4:129), and {wa-law taqawwala ʿalaynā baʿḍa l-aqāwīl} ('had he fabricated against Us some sayings', Q 69:44). "Fa-kulā minhā raghadan" ('so eat of it, the two of you, freely', cf. Q 2:35) does not belong here [raghadan is a circumstantial accusative (ḥāl), not a stand-in for an omitted verbal noun].

The object of reason (al-mafʿūl lahu) is the verbal noun (maṣdar) that gives the reason (muʿallil) for an event (ḥadath) with which it shares time and agent (fāʿil), as in "qumtu ijlālan laka" ('I stood out of reverence for you'). If the word giving the reason lacks one of these conditions, it is put in the genitive (jarr) by a particle of reason (ḥarf al-taʿlīl), as in "khalaqa lakum" ('He created for you', Q 2:29) [here the reason is not a verbal noun]:

wa-innī la-taʿrūnī li-dhikrāki hizzatun ('A trembling seizes me at the remembrance of you') [the agent differs: the trembling is the subject of taʿrū, while the speaker is the one remembering];

fa-jiʾtu wa-qad naḍḍat li-nawmin thiyābahā ('I came when she had already put off her clothes for sleep') [the time differs: the undressing precedes the sleeping].

The object of location (al-mafʿūl fīhi) is a noun of time (ism zamān) or an indeterminate noun of place (ism makān mubham) that an operator (ʿāmil) governs with the sense of 'in' (fī). Nouns of time: "ṣumtu yawma l-khamīs" ('I fasted on Thursday'), "ḥīnan" ('for a while'), or "usbūʿan" ('for a week'). Indeterminate nouns of place are: the six directions, such as amām ('in front'), fawq ('above') and yamīn ('right') and their opposites; words like them, such as ʿinda and ladā ('at, with'); measures (maqādīr), such as farsakh ('a parasang'); and a noun formed from the verbal noun (maṣdar) of its own operator, as in "qaʿadtu maqʿada Zaydin" ('I sat in Zayd's seat').

The object of accompaniment (al-mafʿūl maʿahu) is a noun that is a non-core element (faḍla) and comes after a wāw meant to state accompaniment (maʿiyya) explicitly (tanṣīṣ), the wāw being preceded by a verb or by a word containing the verb's letters and meaning, as in "sirtu wa-l-Nīla" ('I travelled along with the Nile') and "ana sāʾirun wa-l-Nīla" ('I am travelling along with the Nile'). The accusative (naṣb) is sometimes obligatory, as when you say "lā tanha ʿani l-qabīḥi wa-ityānahu" ('do not forbid what is vile while doing it yourself'). To this belong, on the sounder view in both cases, "qumtu wa-Zaydan" ('I stood up along with Zayd') and "marartu bika wa-Zaydan" ('I passed by you along with Zayd') [conjunction here would require an emphasising pronoun or a repeated preposition]. The accusative is preferred in a case like your saying "kun anta wa-Zaydan ka-l-akh" ('be, you along with Zayd, like a brother'), and it is weak in a case like "qāma Zaydun wa-ʿAmrun" ('Zayd and ʿAmr stood up').

It is a descriptive word (waṣf) that is an optional complement (faḍla) and answers the question 'how?' (kayfa), as in ḍarabtu l-liṣṣa maktūfan, 'I beat the thief bound.' Its condition is that it be indefinite (tankīr). The condition on its owner (ṣāḥib al-ḥāl) is that it be definite (taʿrīf), or specified (takhṣīṣ), or general (taʿmīm), or placed after the ḥāl (taʾkhīr). Examples: {khushshaʿan abṣāruhum yakhrujūna}, 'with their eyes downcast they will come forth' (Q 54:7), where the owner is the definite pronoun in yakhrujūna; {fī arbaʿati ayyāmin sawāʾan li-s-sāʾilīna}, 'in four days, equal for those who ask' (Q 41:10), where the owner arbaʿati ayyāmin is specified by the annexation; {wa-mā ahlaknā min qaryatin illā lahā mundhirūna}, 'and We destroyed no town but that it had warners' (Q 26:208), where the owner qarya is general because it follows a negation.

[Verse, illustrating the owner placed after the ḥāl:] li-Mayyata mūḥishan ṭalalu, 'Mayya has a ruined encampment, desolate.' The ḥāl mūḥishan, 'desolate', precedes its indefinite owner ṭalalu, 'ruined encampment'. (The text as transmitted here writes the name as lmh.)

The specifying noun (tamyīz) is a noun that is an optional complement (faḍla), indefinite (nakira), non-derived (jāmid), and explains (mufassir) an entity whose kind has been left vague. It occurs most often after measures (maqādīr), as in jarībun nakhlan, 'a jarīb of palm-land', ṣāʿun tamran, 'a ṣāʿ of dates', and manawāni ʿasalan, 'two manns of honey'; and after numbers (ʿadad), as in aḥada ʿashara kawkaban, 'eleven stars' (Q 12:4), up to ninety-nine. To this belongs the tamyīz of interrogative kam (kam al-istifhāmiyya), as in kam ʿabdan malakta?, 'how many slaves have you owned?' The tamyīz of declarative kam (kam al-khabariyya), however, is in the genitive (majrūr): either singular, like the tamyīz of a hundred and above, or plural, like the tamyīz of ten and below. When interrogative kam is itself put in the genitive by a preposition (ḥarf), you may put its tamyīz in either the genitive (jarr) or the accusative (naṣb). The tamyīz may also explain the relation (nisba) between the parts of a sentence. Such a tamyīz is either converted (muḥawwal) from another sentence element, as in {ishtaʿala r-raʾsu shayban}, 'the head is aflame with grey hair' (Q 19:4), {wa-fajjarnā l-arḍa ʿuyūnan}, 'and We made the earth burst forth with springs' (Q 54:12), and {anā aktharu minka mālan}, 'I am greater than you in wealth' (Q 18:34), or it is not converted, as in imtalaʾa l-ināʾu māʾan, 'the vessel filled with water'. Both the ḥāl and the tamyīz may be emphatic (muʾakkid), repeating what is already understood, as in {wa-lā taʿthaw fī l-arḍi mufsidīna}, 'and do not act wickedly in the land, working corruption' (Q 2:60).

And the poet's words:

min khayri adyāni l-bariyyati dīnā, '[the religion of Muḥammad is] among the best of the creatures' religions as a religion'. The tamyīz dīnan is emphatic, since adyān has already named the kind.

And to this belongs:

biʾsa l-faḥlu faḥluhum faḥlan, 'a wretched stallion is their stallion, as a stallion'. Here an emphatic tamyīz faḥlan comes with biʾsa even though its agent (al-faḥlu) is stated explicitly.

This is contrary to the view of Sībawayh, who does not permit a tamyīz with niʿma and biʾsa when their agent is stated explicitly.

The thing excepted (mustathnā) by illā [is in the accusative] when it comes from a complete (tāmm) and affirmative (mūjab) statement (kalām), as in {fa-sharibū minhu illā qalīlan minhum}, 'so they drank from it, except a few of them' (Q 2:249). If the statement is not affirmative, then in the continuous exception (muttaṣil), where the excepted belongs to the same class as what it is excepted from, apposition (badal) is preferred, as in mā faʿalūhu illā qalīlun minhum, 'none did it except a few of them' (Q 4:66).

In the discontinuous exception (munqaṭiʿ), where the excepted is not of the same class, the accusative (naṣb) is preferred among the Banū Tamīm and is obligatory among the people of the Ḥijāz, as in {mā lahum bihi min ʿilmin illā ttibāʿa ẓ-ẓanni}, 'they have no knowledge of it except the following of conjecture' (Q 4:157). If the excepted comes before the thing it is excepted from, then in both kinds (continuous and discontinuous) the accusative is required, as in the poet's words:

wa-mā liya illā āla Muḥammadin shīʿatun … wa-mā liya illā madhhaba l-ḥaqqi madhhabu, 'I have no party except the family of Muḥammad, and I have no path except the path of truth.' The excepted nouns āla and madhhaba are accusative because they precede shīʿatun and madhhabu, the things they are excepted from.