Root · 1 in the Quran · 7 in 6 texts of the library
صمدTwo senses per Ibn Fāris: al-qaṣd and al-ṣalāba. (root smd)
الصاد والميم والدال أصلان أحدهما القصد والآخر الصلابة في الشيء
Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs al-lugha · English rendering AI
The family of the root
Patterns computed · our dataThe words of ص م د that our sources attest: the root's letters in green, the added letters in gold.
21 words5 verbs3 verbal nouns2 participles1 place or instrument1 intensive or elative5 other nouns4 plurals
- صَمَدeverlasting (God)
- صَمَدَhe tended, repaired, betook himself, or directed himself or his course or …
- صَامَدَhe contended with him in fight
- أَصْمَدَhe rested, or stayed, upon him the affair
- مِصْمَادshe-camel that endures cold, and drought, or barrenness of the earth, …
The whole family7 groups, by pattern; tap a pattern to see what it does
Verbs5صَمَدَ · صَمَّدَ · صَامَدَ
The root as an action: the bare Form I, and the Forms made by adding letters before, inside or after the root.grammar →
Form I vowels: فَعَلَ يَفْعُلُ (a – u; the imperfect from Lane's “aor.”)
Verbal nouns3صَمْد · تَصْمِيد · صِمَاد
The action itself, named as a noun (maṣdar).grammar →
Participles2مُصَمَّد · مُصْمَد
The one who does it, and the one it is done to.grammar →
Place, time and instrument1مِصْمَاد
Where or when it happens, and what it is done with: the m- nouns.grammar →
- مِصْمَادshe-camel that endures cold, and drought, or barrenness of the earth, …Lanenoun of instrumentLane
Intensives, qualities and the elative1صَمُود
The quality carried far, held as a trait, or compared.grammar →
- صَمُودcertain idol, which belonged to the tribe of 'Ád, who worshipped itLaneintensive (faʿūl)Lane
Other nouns5صَمَد · صَمَدَة · صَمْدَة
Nouns on other patterns; their meaning is learned word by word.grammar →
Reference
Why this shape?What each of the 12 patterns does
What each pattern does. The pattern gives a tendency, not a rule: many words have drifted into meanings of their own.
The pattern machinePour the root into a pattern; see whether the word exists
Choose a pattern; the root's letters pour into it. Then see whether the word exists in our sources. The machine makes shapes; only usage makes words.
Not in our sources. A possible shape, not a word we can show: the Quran, the library and Lane do not have it for this root.
Place noun with -a. The place noun with the feminine -a. Sometimes it is only a variant of mafʿal; often it names the place where a thing is found in abundance (maʾsada, 'a place full of lions'). So maktab is the place of writing, and maktaba, where writings are gathered: a library, a bookshop. Our summary AI
But: maktaba is not in our classical dictionaries for k-t-b: Lane and al-Jawharī give maktab ('a school'), none gives maktaba. Its sense of 'library, bookshop' fits the pattern of abundance, but that is our reading of the pattern, not a classical entry. Many mafʿala words are single items of usage (maqbara 'cemetery'), which the grammarians call heard, not formed by rule.
The grammarians on this pattern (4)
ما يكون مفعلة لازمة لها الهاء والفتحة … وذلك إذا أردت أن تكثر الشيء بالمكان، وذلك قولك: أرض مسبعة، ومأسدة
Chapter on what is mafʿala, with the -a and the a-vowel always: that is when you mean that a thing abounds in a place, as you say 'a land of many beasts of prey (masbaʿa), of many lions (maʾsada)' AI
Sībawayh (d. c. 180/796), al-Kitāb, ed. ʿAbd al-Salām Hārūn, 3rd ed. (Cairo: al-Khānjī, 1988), 4:94 · OpenITI line 21027–21028 ↗ · on this site · OpenITI RELEASE v2025.1.9, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
و نحو المظنة و المقبرة فتحا و ضما ليس بقياس
and words like maẓinna and maqbara (with a or u) are not by rule AI
Ibn al-Ḥājib (d. 646/1249), al-Shāfiya fī ʿilm al-taṣrīf, ed. Ḥasan Aḥmad al-ʿUthmān (Mecca: al-Maktaba al-Makkiyya, 1995), 1:30 · OpenITI line 223 ↗ · on this site · OpenITI RELEASE v2025.1.9, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
- “designate the place where the object signified by the noun from which they are formed, is found in large numbers or quantities” Wright, Grammar I, §247, p. 148 ↗ · on nouns of abundance, maf'ala · 3rd ed. (Cambridge, 1896) · public domain
- “Nouns of time and place not unfrequently take the feminine form” Wright, Grammar I, §225, p. 128 ↗ · on maf'ala as a variant of maf'al · 3rd ed. (Cambridge, 1896) · public domain
About thisWhat “attested” means here; the sources
Attested means found in our data: the Quranic Arabic Corpus (lemmas, verb Forms, participles, verbal nouns, plurals), the library's words (automatic analysis), Lane's Lexicon (his headwords, the Forms he numbers, the verbal nouns and plurals he names) and Ibn Fāris's entry. Nothing is generated for this list. Meanings are Lane's first gloss in his entry, or else the analyser's gloss (“auto”). Vowelling follows the corpus, then Lane, then the analyser; verbs are given in the regular perfect. Lane's Lexicon thins out after qāf, and a few of his entries cover several roots at once: those roots show no Lane. The patterns, written with ف ع ل, are computed by us.
The dictionaries
English: AI translation AIal-Khalīl · 170Al-ṣamad (الصمد), according to al-Ḥasan: the one to whom all matters are directed/referred (uṣmidat ilayhi), so that no one else attends to them.
al-Khalīl b. Aḥmad (d. c. 170/786), Kitāb al-ʿAyn. The first Arabic dictionary, arranged by permutations of the root letters.
AI AI translation of the Arabic belowal-Jawharī · 393Al-ṣamad (الصمد): the elevated, rugged place.
al-Jawharī (d. c. 393/1003), al-Ṣiḥāḥ. Admits only usage he judged sound.
AI AI translation of the Arabic belowIbn Fāris · 395The letters ṣād, mīm, and dāl [form a root with] two original meanings: one is intention/purpose (al-qaṣd), and the other is hardness in a thing.
Ibn Fāris (d. 395/1004), Maqāyīs al-Lugha. Seeks each root's original sense (aṣl).
AI AI translation of the Arabic belowal-Rāghib · 502Al-ṣamad (الصمد): the chief/master, the one to whom recourse is made in matters (yuṣmadu ilayhi).
al-Rāghib al-Iṣfahānī (d. c. 502/1108), al-Mufradāt. Quranic vocabulary, from core sense to Quranic usage.
AI AI translation of the Arabic belowLisān · 711Ṣamadahu yaṣmuduhu ṣamdan (صمده يصمده صمدا) and ṣamada ilayhi (صمد إليه) both mean: he aimed at/sought him.
Ibn Manẓūr (d. 711/1311), Lisān al-ʿArab. The great compendium of the earlier dictionaries (entry shortened).
AI AI translation of the Arabic below
The same letters, turned
The same three letters in all six orders. Choose one.
ص م د
الصاد والميم والدال أصلان أحدهما القصد والآخر الصلابة في الشيء
ṣ-m-d has two roots: one is intent, and the other hardness in something. AI
an entry in Ibn Fārislater sources onlyin none of them
Do these six share one core meaning?
Reference
About thisal-Khalīl, Ibn Jinnī, Ibn Fāris; the counts across the dictionary
al-Khalīl (d. c. 170/786), Kitāb al-ʿAyn, as transmitted by al-Layth: a two-letter word “turns in two ways”, a three-letter word “in six ways” (masdūsa), four letters in 24, five in 120; “its used forms are written down and its unused ones dropped” (line 975 ↗). The dictionary is built on this: each chapter takes a set of letters and names which orders are used (mustaʿmal) and which unused (muhmal). The ring shows that verdict, from the chapter heading as edited (documented in the text; how much of the book is al-Khalīl's own is disputed).
A reported total. al-Suyūṭī transmits, from Ḥamza al-Iṣfahānī, that al-Khalīl put the possible forms, used and unused, of two to five letters at 12,305,412 (al-Muzhir, line 1347 ↗). It is reported, not found in the ʿAyn. It equals exactly the arrangements of 2 to 5 different letters out of 28 (756 + 19,656 + 491,400 + 11,793,600); the breakdown printed beside it is corrupt, and al-Zubaydī's count, given next, differs (6,659,400).
Ibn Jinnī (d. 392/1002), al-Khaṣāʾiṣ, names the greater derivation (al-ishtiqāq al-akbar): bind a three-letter root and its six orders to one meaning, and bring stray members back “by the subtlety of the craft and interpretation” (line 7536 ↗). He says himself that it does not hold for every root (line 167 ↗; line 7603 ↗).
Ibn Fāris (d. 395/1004) gives each root its own aṣl and treats a rearranged word as maqlūb, “turned round”, and so not a root of its own: “j-b-dh is not a root, because it is a single word, turned round” (Maqāyīs, line 6147 ↗). The ring sets his aṣl for each order side by side; whether they meet is the question.
Neighbours on the ring differ by one swap of two letters.
The critique. A source quoted by al-Suyūṭī calls the greater derivation Ibn Jinnī's innovation, “not relied on in the language” (al-Muzhir, line 6159 ↗).
The other axis. The root's letters also go into patterns that keep their order and change the frame: the patterns (awzān) and the verb Forms I–X.
Across Ibn Fāris's dictionary. Of the 2,300 possible sets of three different sound letters (no hamza, w or y), 1,021 have at least one order as an entry. How many of their six orders are entries:
- 1 of 6319
- 2 of 6218
- 3 of 6164
- 4 of 6155
- 5 of 6107
- 6 of 658
- 1 of 6148
- 2 of 6108
- 3 of 6157
- 4 of 6179
- 5 of 6111
- 6 of 643
Of the orders al-Khalīl calls used, 2,097 are entries in Ibn Fāris and 267 are not; 17 that he calls unused are entries in Ibn Fāris.
Attested here means found in our digital texts (Ibn Fāris, Lisān al-ʿArab, Lane, the Quranic Arabic Corpus), with w and y kept apart and hamza spellings merged; it is our data, not a classical verdict. English beside the Arabic is AI translation. Sources and grades: docs/research/root-permutations.md.
Letters & sound
- صṣādtongue-tip, by the front teeth · voiceless, continuant, velarisedSīb. · I. Jinnī
- مmīmbetween the lips · voiced, in betweenSīb. · I. Jinnī
- دdāltongue-tip, roots of the teeth · voiced, stopSīb. · I. Jinnī
How each letter is made, in brief, from Sībawayh's and Ibn Jinnī's own sentences (linked); their words are under Reference.
Sharing two of its three letters (computed; kinship of form, not of meaning)
Reference
How it is madeSībawayh and Ibn Jinnī · phonetics
English throughout: AI translation of the Arabic AI
ص
ومما بين طرف اللسان وفويق الثنايا مخرج الزاي، والسين، والصاد
From between the tip of the tongue and just above the front teeth is the place of the zāy, the sīn and the ṣād. Sībawayh, line 26560 ↗
ومما بين الثنايا وطرف اللسان، مخرج الصاد والزاي والسين
From between the front teeth and the tip of the tongue is the place of the ṣād, the zāy and the sīn. Ibn Jinnī, line 983 ↗
م
ومما بين الشفتين مخرج الباء، والميم، والواو
From between the two lips is the place of the bāʾ, the mīm and the wāw. Sībawayh, line 26563 ↗
ومما بين الشفتين مخرج الباء والميم والواو
From between the two lips is the place of the bāʾ, the mīm and the wāw. Ibn Jinnī, line 986 ↗
د
ومما بين طرف اللسان وأصول الثنايا مخرج الطاء، والدال، والتاء
From between the tip of the tongue and the roots of the front teeth is the place of the ṭāʾ, the dāl and the tāʾ. Sībawayh, line 26559 ↗
ومما بين طرف اللسان وأصول الثنايا، مخرج الطاء والدال والتاء
From between the tip of the tongue and the roots of the front teeth is the place of the ṭāʾ, the dāl and the tāʾ. Ibn Jinnī, line 982 ↗
Sībawayh, al-Kitāb (ed. Hārūn) and Ibn Jinnī, Sirr ṣināʿat al-iʿrāb; OpenITI digital texts (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0). Full credits on each letter's page.
In the Breath of the All-MercifulIbn ʿArabī · metaphysics
English throughout: AI translation of the Arabic AI
ص
Level of existence: التراب · earth
Divine Name: المميت · al-Mumīt, the Death-Giver
Lunar mansion: البلدة · al-Balda
Futūḥāt ch. 198, line 62111Spheres of its simples (ch. 2): 8 line 2571 ↗
Nature (ch. 2)
الثمانية فحروفها حارة يابسة
The eightfold [rank]: its letters are hot and dry.
Ibn ʿArabī, al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya, line 2580م
Level of existence: الإنسان · the human being
Divine Name: الجامع · al-Jāmiʿ, the Gatherer
Lunar mansion: المؤخر · al-Muʾakhkhar
Futūḥāt ch. 198, line 62119Spheres of its simples (ch. 2): 10 line 2573 ↗
Nature (ch. 2)
المرتبة العشرية فحروفها حارة يابسة
The tenfold rank: its letters are hot and dry.
Ibn ʿArabī, al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya, line 2582د
Level of existence: السماء الدنيا · the lowest heaven (al-samāʾ al-dunyā)
Divine Name: المبين · the Clarifier (al-Mubīn)
Lunar mansion: الأكليل · al-Iklīl
Futūḥāt ch. 198, line 64682Spheres of its simples (ch. 2): 10 line 2573 ↗
Nature (ch. 2)
المرتبة العشرية فحروفها حارة يابسة
The tenfold rank: its letters are hot and dry.
Ibn ʿArabī, al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya, line 2582Meaning by vowelal-Dabbāgh · a visionary claim about a primordial “Syriac”, not historical Syriac
English throughout: AI translation of the Arabic AI
ص
With fatḥa ـَ
فهي جميع غبار الأرض في الموقف بين يدي الله عز وجل.
It is all the dust of the earth at the Standing (on the Day of Judgement) before God, Mighty and Majestic.
With ḍamma ـُ
فهي جميع نباتاتها.
It is all its (the earth's) plants.
With kasra ـِ
فهي الأرضون السبع.
It is the seven earths.
م
With fatḥa ـَ
فهي جميع المكونات.
It is all created beings.
With ḍamma ـُ
فهي العزيز القليل كماء العين، ومنه قيل مومو.
It is the precious, scarce thing, like the water of the eye; from it comes the expression 'mūmū'.
With kasra ـِ
فهي نور الذات ظاهرا كما في العين، وباطنا كما في القلب.
It is the light of the self, outwardly as in the eye and inwardly as in the heart.
د
With fatḥa ـَ
فهي إشارة إلى خارج عن الذات.
It is an indication of something external to the self.
With ḍamma ـُ
فهي إشارة إلى ما هو قليل أو قبيح ومعه غضب فيهما.
It is an indication of what is small or ugly, accompanied by anger in both cases.
With kasra ـِ
فهي إشارة إلى ما في الذات أو إلى ما هو داخل عليها أو إلى ما هو قريب منها.
It is an indication of what is in the self, or what is entering upon it, or what is near to it.
Two-letter nucleus7 roots in Ibn Fāris’s chapterص م
Ibn Fāris groups his roots under two-letter chapters (“the X and the Y and what makes them three”). These are the roots of this root's chapter with the core sense he gives each. Setting them side by side is our juxtaposition; he does not himself draw a shared meaning. His chapter heading, line 16698 ↗
- صمىالصاد والميم والحرف المعتل أصل واحد يدل على السرعة في الشيءL16699
- صمتالصاد والميم والتاء أصل واحد يدل على إبهام وإغلاقQ 1 · L16703
- صمجالصاد والميم والجيم ليس بشيء على أنهم يقولون الصمج القناديل الواحدة صمجة وينشدون — والنجم مثل الصمج الروميات …L16715
- صمخالصاد والميم والخاء أصل واحد وكلمة واحدة وهو الصماخ خرق الأذنL16719
- صمعالصاد والميم والعين أصل واحد يدل على لطافة في الشيء وتضامQ 1 · L16732
- صمكالصاد والميم والكاف أصيل يدل على قوة وشدةL16741
- صملالصاد والميم واللام أصل واحد يدل على شدة وصلابةL16744
In the sister scriptsHebrew צ מ דSyriac ܨ ܡ ܕ
| Arabic | ص م د |
| Hebrew | צ מ ד |
| Syriac | ܨ ܡ ܕ |
| Ancient South Arabian (musnad) | 𐩮 𐩣 𐩵 |
| Phoenician | 𐤑 𐤌 𐤃 |
Letter for letter, by the regular sound correspondences of the Semitic languages (Arabic keeps several sounds the others merged). This shows how the root would be spelled; whether a related word exists is a separate question, answered in the Semitic lens. Where an Arabic sibilant (s, sh) continues two older sounds, both spellings are shown.
Lenses
AIClassical lexiconAl-Khalīl (via al-Ḥasan) glosses al-ṣamad as the one to whom affairs are referred so that none other attends to them, ties the root to quṣadtu ('I sought'), and gives al-ṣamad also as 'chief of his people, above whom none stands,' citing 'khudhhā ḥudhayfa fa-anta al-sayyid al-ṣamad,' alongside a second sense, al-muṣmat ('without a hollow interior') and al-ṣamada, a firm rock outcropping.well attested
The lexicographers in chronological order, from al-Khalīl to Lane.
Al-Khalīl (via al-Ḥasan) glosses al-ṣamad as the one to whom affairs are referred so that none other attends to them, ties the root to quṣadtu ('I sought'), and gives al-ṣamad also as 'chief of his people, above whom none stands,' citing 'khudhhā ḥudhayfa fa-anta al-sayyid al-ṣamad,' alongside a second sense, al-muṣmat ('without a hollow interior') and al-ṣamada, a firm rock outcropping. Al-Jawharī keeps both threads — al-ṣamad as rugged high ground, al-muṣmad as a variant of 'hollow-less,' and ṣamada yaṣmudu ṣamadan as 'he sought/aimed for' — with 'chief' explained because people resort to him in their needs (same verse cited). Ibn Fāris files the root under two aṣl, al-qaṣd (seeking) and al-ṣalāba (hardness), adding Ṭarafa's line on the 'sought-after' tent-house to Abū al-Najm's line on hard ground. Al-Rāghib joins the two strands for the divine name: al-ṣamad is the one relied upon and sought, and 'without hollow' applies either to things beneath the human (inanimate objects) or to what is above it (the Creator and angels); he reads Q112:2 as distinguishing God from those who ascribe divinity to beings who eat, pointing to Q5:75 on Mary and Jesus. Ibn Manẓūr gathers the action-sense broadly (ṣamada ilayhi, tasammada lahu bi-l-ʿaṣā, the hadiths of Muʿādh b. ʿAmr and ʿAlī) alongside concrete senses (bayt muṣammad, taṣmīd al-raʾs, al-ṣimād as a flask's stopper); no Lane excerpt is given here.
Letters & soundIn the letter-scheme attributed to Ibn ʿArabī, ṣād marks earth (al-turāb), mīm the human being, and dāl the lowest heaven;speculative
What the theorists of sound symbolism would say of these letters. Speculative by nature.
In the letter-scheme attributed to Ibn ʿArabī, ṣād marks earth (al-turāb), mīm the human being, and dāl the lowest heaven; al-Dabbāgh glosses ṣād as the dust of all creatures before God at the Standing, mīm as created beings collectively, and dāl as an indication of what is external to the self. Read speculatively against al-ṣamad as a divine name, the sequence could be taken as moving from dust, through creaturely being, to what stands outside the self — a name approached through creaturely categories for a referent the lexicographers describe as 'without hollow,' self-sufficient, and unlike what eats and needs. This is a resonance, not an argument; mainstream linguistics gives no warrant for treating individual Arabic letters as bearers of fixed meaning, and this lens should be read as evocative juxtaposition only.
Draws on: akbari198 · dabbagh_fatha
Root structureIbn Fāris's ṣ-m chapter-neighbors cluster loosely around closure, compactness, and firmness: ṣ-m-t (ambiguity/sealing), ṣ-m-ʿ (refinement and compactness, as in ṣawmaʿa), ṣ-m-k and ṣ-m-l (strength, hardness) — a family ṣ-m-d's second aṣl (ṣalāba, a hard level place) joins naturally, while its first aṣl (qaṣd, seeking) sits closer to ṣ-m-y (quickness toward a thing).plausible
The two-letter nucleus (Ibn Fāris's own chapters) and the permutations of the letters (Ibn Jinnī).
Ibn Fāris's ṣ-m chapter-neighbors cluster loosely around closure, compactness, and firmness: ṣ-m-t (ambiguity/sealing), ṣ-m-ʿ (refinement and compactness, as in ṣawmaʿa), ṣ-m-k and ṣ-m-l (strength, hardness) — a family ṣ-m-d's second aṣl (ṣalāba, a hard level place) joins naturally, while its first aṣl (qaṣd, seeking) sits closer to ṣ-m-y (quickness toward a thing). Among the permutations, ṣ-m-d itself is well attested; ṣ-d-m ('collision,' striking a hard thing against its like) is a plausible semantic neighbor via the hardness sense; m-ṣ-d is attested but Ibn Fāris explicitly calls it 'two unrelated words'; d-m-ṣ is offered only tentatively by Ibn Fāris himself ('not a root, in my view') around smoothness (dawmaṣ, a helmet), and m-d-ṣ/d-ṣ-m are unattested. A greater-derivation reading (Ibn Jinnī) could juxtapose ṣ-m-d/ṣ-d-m around 'hard contact,' but this is a suggestion drawn from the pattern, not a claim made in the sources themselves.
Draws on: Ibn Fāris · nucleusSiblings · permutations
- Wiktionary root appendix ص-م-د (link not verified)
Semitic kin & loanwordsNo confident Semitic cognate is established for ṣ-m-d.uncertain
Cognates in the sister languages, and whether the word was borrowed.
No confident Semitic cognate is established for ṣ-m-d. Hebrew has a root צמד (ṣ-m-d) meaning 'to join, yoke, pair' (compare ṣemed, 'a yoke/pair'), phonologically identical letter-for-letter, but its sense (binding two things together) is not obviously continuous with the Arabic senses of 'seeking/resorting to' or 'solid, without hollow'; any connection would require an unproven semantic bridge. The word is not a plausible loanword; it patterns as an inherited triliteral within Arabic's own derivational system.
Draws on: hebrew
Quranic exegesisFor Allāh al-Ṣamad (Q112:2), al-Ṭabarī transmits several early glosses without adjudicating between them: 'the lord to whom needs are referred,' 'the one without a hollow interior who does not eat or drink,' and 'the enduring one who remains after all else perishes.' Al-Zamakhsharī foregrounds the relational sense — the one to whom all recourse is made in every need — and connects it to the sūra's denial that God begets or is begotten (112:3): God is self-sufficient, without composition, and without need of sustenance, unlike Mary and Jesus who ate food.well attested
How the classical exegetes read the word in the Quran.
For Allāh al-Ṣamad (Q112:2), al-Ṭabarī transmits several early glosses without adjudicating between them: 'the lord to whom needs are referred,' 'the one without a hollow interior who does not eat or drink,' and 'the enduring one who remains after all else perishes.' Al-Zamakhsharī foregrounds the relational sense — the one to whom all recourse is made in every need — and connects it to the sūra's denial that God begets or is begotten (112:3): God is self-sufficient, without composition, and without need of sustenance, unlike Mary and Jesus who ate food. Al-Rāzī surveys the same range of definitions at length and inclines toward a synthesis centered on mutual independence: God is independent of everything while everything depends on Him, making al-ṣamad a summary term for tawḥīd against any rival claimed to share in divinity. Al-Rāghib's mufradāt gloss supplies the same underlying contrast.
Draws on: tabari · zamakhshari · razi · raghib
Philosophy & kalāmAl-Ṣamad is not a standard falsafa term like wujūd or ʿayn, but in kalām discussions of the divine names it functions as shorthand for God's absolute self-sufficiency (ghinā, istighnāʾ) and freedom from composition (tarkīb) — the theological payload al-Rāzī draws from the lexical 'without hollow' and 'sought by all' senses.plausible
The word as a technical term in falsafa and theology.
Al-Ṣamad is not a standard falsafa term like wujūd or ʿayn, but in kalām discussions of the divine names it functions as shorthand for God's absolute self-sufficiency (ghinā, istighnāʾ) and freedom from composition (tarkīb) — the theological payload al-Rāzī draws from the lexical 'without hollow' and 'sought by all' senses. It is invoked in arguments for divine simplicity and against any dependency in God, rather than as a term with its own technical logical apparatus.
Draws on: razi · kalam
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